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A covalent bond is formed between non-metal ions which share some of their outer shell electrons so that each atom has a stable inert gas configuration.

If a reaction at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, pressure or temperature, the position of equilibrium will move to counteract that change.

An amino acid is a monomer of a protein formed from an amino group, carboxyl group and variable R-group. They are held in long chains via peptide bonds.

This is the first folding of the amino acid chain. The chain folds into either alpha helices or beta pleated sweats and is stabilised by hydrogen bonds between the amino acids.

Pliny uses the chiasmus of ‘festinat illus unde alii fugiunt’ which translates as 'he hurried to that place from which others were fleeing'. The sentence is almost comical, describing how Pliny the Elder is ...