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Gratuitous evil is evil that cannot be explained by any theodicy, the "fawn in the fire" case is supposed to be such a case. The fawn's suffering cannot be explained by the Free Will theodicy as...

Functionalism argues that all mental states are reducible to types physical processes based on their logic (input/output) tables. For instance fear might mean [Input: something large and scary arives. Out...

Possible answers: (1) Problem: Sadististic Guards. Solutions: Higher and Lower pleasures, Prioritarianism, Negative Utilitarianism. (2) Problem: Issues in population ethics. Solutions: Higher and Lower pl...

G.E. Moore performs something known as the G.E. Moore shift. This is where he takes the sceptic's Modus Ponens argument: (1) If you can doubt the natural world then you cannot know anything about the natu...

The chain rule is a method that allows you to differentiate a function of a function, which can be of the form y = f[g(x)]. That is, g is a function of x and f is a function of g, which in turn is a funct...